Humanist Italy and Muslim Roman Empire

The leaders of the Italian merchant republic who educated their youth as humanists, provided to expose ancient Greek and Latin sources of history, science, philosophy, art and poetry so Humanism was began. It spread to all arts and also architecture which associated all’antica details from Greco-Roman culture. Even though, the artists and architects were copying antiquity, there was the effort for eager to discover the principles of design. That’s why, the new palaces and churches was changed the character of Italian cities. Because of the humanism idea, buildings gained more uniform scale and geometric basis.

Most public works that were rounded arches, symmetrically placed bays and harmonious proportions were based on numbers, such as 1:1, 1:2, and 2:3. In this way, it caused new way of seeing. That perspective vision accompanied the principal public space of the city.  Palazzo Vecchio that piazza della Signoria surrounded was one of the example of that situation. The enlarged space brought together on a grid and brick pavers and also allowed one to view the volume of the city’s public palace and bell tower.

In that period, one of the greatest civic projects was Santa Maria del Fiore that was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio. After the halt, Francesco Talenti extended the length of the nave an extra bay and outlined the area for huge octagonal dome over the crossing. Also their intention was surpass the dome to domes of the rival cities of Pisa and Siena. That’s why Neri Di Fioravanti produced a scale model of the dome’s central octagon which stepped down to three partial octagons. Each octagon was contained five radiating chapels. The structural concept was based on the twelfth-century Baptistery of San Giovanni.

 In 1418, Filippo Brunelleschi took the charge of the project. In first time the architect had to collective work with his rival Lorenzo Ghiberti on dome problems. However, the architect was prevailed with his solution and demonstrated his talent in art of construction. The secret of Brunelleschi’s double-shelled structure lay in masonry techniques and ribbed skeleton gird by nine horizontal supports concealed between the two layers. Also he conserved the pointed arches and ribs in the dome. At the base of the octagonal drum he inserted rounded tribunes between three apses to resist the outward thrust of the dome. The dome was completed after the architect’s death with buttresses made with classical glutted pilasters and reversed-curve volutes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In 1419, Brunelleschi was designed the Foundling Hospital. His design was suitable the conventions of earlier hospitals in Florence. He used long halls and courtyards which were located behind of the public loggia. He also set the level of the loggia above head height on a nine step base. Stage like relation provided a greater sense of drama to the anonymous act of leaving the orphans at a window on far left of the loggia. After that century, loggia was used for completing the symmetry of the piazza in directly opposite the hospital.

                     

In 1417 Brunelleschi also began the dome of the Old Sacristy of San Lorenzo. In the building main program included the tomb for the patron and his wife beneath the table in the centre of the room. Cubic volume on pendentives was carry the dome rose and it was assuming the shape of a hemispherical umbrella divided by twelve round-arch ribs. Also smaller dome covered the altar.

 

Muslim Roman Empire

Between fifteenth and eighteenth century, the leading power of the Mediterranean was Ottoman Turks. In that period Ottoman architects was inspired from architectural models which were Armenian churches, Seljuk tombs and Persian arcades. The Orhan Gazi Cami was built-in Bursa with reverse-T shape plan and the location that was looking the central markets. The entry façade had a five-bay porch made with pointed arches and the masonry which was seems like Byzantine craft, made from bands of brick and limestone.  There is an octagonal fountain house in the garden with central bay of porch for ablution stood. Inside, two central domes covered an axial prayer hall leading to the mihrab, the other minor domes on the sides was covering the auxiliary rooms.

 

The reverse-T shape plan was applied in many royal foundation in Bursa including, Yeşil Cami that built-in the early fifteenth century in east of the fortress of Mehmed I. Rendered ashlar blocks of marble was cladded on the façade that all of the proportional elements repeated serially. Interiority of Yeşil Cami, leading to second level were through with foyer and stairs. Comfortable rooms were located separately from the prayer hall so the sultan looked down from the loggia to the domed spaces of the prayer hall. Upper clerestory windows glazed with green and blue panes that filtered the light, while delicate muqarnas articulated the niches.

 

One of the great mosques was Ulu Cami in Bursa. It differed in type from the reverse-T shape. Hypostyle model that found throughout Southwest Asia was used. Each of its twenty bays carried round dome. These squares like round domes that were used in palaces, hospitals, schools, baths and mosques were the main unit of Ottoman architecture.

Gothic Culture In Europe

The clergy and increasing interest of monarchy created Gothic style in France.  It was different from the Romanesque churches that had heavy barrel vaults. The gothic cathedral designers were used structural system that combined pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses. Because of these structures, they achieved extreme height levels and ceremonial enlightenment. This style was spread by European masons to some cities such as, Spanish, Germans, English, Polish, and Czechs.

City Returns

In that period, new orientation of the cities encouraged the expansion of the city walls, giant cathedrals and impressive civic buildings. Troyes was the one of the French cities that affected. The change was start with champagne fairs in Troyes. The Champagne fairs were organized initially in outside of the city gates. It causes the permanent settlement that was called faubourgs in France. The city Wall of Troyes covered the western faubourgs of market district. This enclosed district included synagogue, a large building for the crusaders Templar order, and two hospitals.

The hospital of Troyes was built-in French manner that was increasing heights and reducing walls to skeletal frames so it seems like Hospital of Notre Dame de Fontenilles that built in same period at Tonnerre. The hall was covered with wooden barrel vault, terminating with small chapel. The technic came from monastic design.

In the transformation of Troyes, concentric layer linked by radial streets supported the urban perimeters so it supplied connection to administrative and economic hub. The city also improved the canal system and some civic monuments which were the Belfry, the Cloth Hall and the Waterhalle. The Belfry begun in 1280 and it was combined with Cloth Hall which was used for municipal meetings. Merchant regime financed an innovative structure for the Waterhall in the same year. A giant covered hall and fifteen bays long so traders put their goods from the barges to the merchandiser stalls. In that way, they did not have to haul them in a protect environment.

In the older towns of Europe, the aristocratic patrons planned settlements used financial investment or colonial centres so counts, lords of southern Germany and Switzerland was initiated the concept of enterprise.  Freiburg and Berne was one of these cities. Toward the end of the twelfth century, Freiburg planners created a cross-axial second street for a market usage. Berne was grown in a linear progression, such as doubling the length of its three parallel streets. That progress was served again for market usage. Even though, there were not any specific space for cathedrals or town halls these cities had proven them as a successful market cities.

First Traces about Gothic Style

Montpazier and Villefranche de Perigord were the cities that founded by both English and France. Both cities were followed the simple grid plan with streets about 7 m wide. Surveyors lead them out and they subdivided the blocks into oblong “gothic lots”.  The dimension of the “gothic lot” related to the standard lengths of timber. The other town that we are able to see gothic design was San Giovanni Valdarno. The town had five parallel streets that diminished progressively in width 11 to 7 m. Creating rectangular public piazza intersected each street so that they were giving attention on public spaces.

The Gothic Cathedral

In gothic period, the designers experimented slender structural members to have verticality and gradually eliminating the mass of the walls for interior light. The master builders of the cathedrals were experiments some advanced technical possibilities of construction with pointed arches, ribbed vaults and flying buttresses. Even though, these three structures were still be in architectural knowledge, using those together served the symbolic potential of light.

Abbot Suger was the first Gothic architecture and St Denis church was the first church that reflected his modern manifesto according to that period. The interior of the church, stained glass windows would become the means to achieve a new light and also sacred figure in Christianity. Suger retained associations with imperial Carolingian west works while inserting between the two towers an oculus a wheel-like round window. That motive was repeated on the facades of all successive Gothic churches. He also achieved the crystalline formation of a double ambulatory. Single columns were stretched between ribbed masonry and taut vaults.

Notre-Dame

Laon was a strategic location on the northern borders, so designers of Notre-Dame used Suger’s disparate concepts to a comprehensive architectonic system. Ribbed vaults spanned both areas, leaving a syncopated rhythm in the slender supports and stout ground floor columns were the samples. The piers alternated bundles of five shafts suitable ribs at the primary arches. The ribbed vaults were supporter for the flying buttresses so the buttresses supported to large voided areas for tall clerestory windows that supply sunlight into it. Laon’s towers flanking the south, west and north entries exhibited the same degree of harmony.

In the period of Louis IX reopened work at St. Denis with Jean de Chelles and Pierre de Montreuil who were the favoured architects of Louise IX. Their reflection was based on reducing walls with thin skeletons of stone which was called rayonnant style. Stained glass windows were used in the tribune, the squat attic level between the lower arcade and the upper clerestories. Lacey stone tracery strung between the scaffold-like structure of interior piers and exterior flying buttresses were used on the exterior walls. Same architects also designed the Ste-Chapelle. Designers intention was based on reduced the mass of the wall to leave an ethereal curtain of stained glass so they obtained the structure of the thin piers with iron tension rods. In the mid thirteenth century, Louis IX resumed the all works in order to creating shining effect of rayonnant. They worked on triadic division of three vertical bays intersected by here horizontal levels so western façade appeared singular harmonious. Biforium windows that were side of the wheel window set in large pointed arches keep the equilibrium of the level.

The great Gothic cathedrals had marvels of immense piles of sculpture. These sculptures were tucked into the niches, pitched on the roofs and cut into the columns. On tops of the Notre-Dame, there were some samples of them. Also, they called Gargoyles which were grotesque creatures sculpted on the downspouts. These were kind of diabolical figures in order to disturb human consciousness from the god way of sins.

The Spread of Gothic: International yet Local

Gothic style was associated with French building so it had been assimilated into foreigners. Gothic style was spread to English, German, Dutch, Spanish, Czech, Portuguese and Italian design. Because of their Norman heritage, English were relevant most of the developments about the gothic style in France. Lincoln cathedral that the designers used eccentric structures have neither collapsed nor attracted imitators was the one of the samples about those developments. However, in the cathedral there were some common structural failures in English cathedrals involved the collapse of the central tower over the crossing. The designers supposed that the stresses inserted huge load on the arches at the intersection of the crossing.

New versions of ribbed vaults and pointed arches were effect of Gothic style in Italy. Gothic style was main preference for building grand churches such as SS. Giovani e Paolo in Venice. Also, the great cathedrals planned in fourteenth-century Florence and Bologna used a simple Gothic which there was not any flying buttresses or complex tracery. However, In Milan they used flamboyant gothic style which contains adventurous structural demands.

The Spread of Islam

Islam began in the southern edge of the Arabian Desert where seminomadic settlements were in. The religion was easy to grasp for everyone. It appeared to be non-hierarchical and there was tolerant of differences so It gained wide approval. Also Islam was developed by the Prophet Muhammad teachings.

The mosque was built as a multi columned hall to provide space for collective religious rituals and a slender tower that called as minaret was built for muezzins who call the faithful to prayer. They provided the new religious focus of the cities under the Islamic rules; also add a new vertical axis to urban skyline.

New religion’s first congregational mosque was merely about the “place of prostration”. The Prophet Muhammad and his pursuer attached a square courtyard 56m per side to west of the Prophet’s house. Vernacular methods that included mud-brick walls and palm-trunk roof were used for the mosque. A long covered portico, two columns deep protected the faithful on the north side from the sun. The initial prayer hall directed to Jerusalem before the conquest of Mecca. After the conquest, it turned to there. Also It called as “qibla”.

In Kufah which would be later capital of Islam in the after the Prophet period, simple architectural settings without apses, side chapels, ambulatories and crypts were supplied in the first mosque. Also, It included mandatory purifying ablutions and a large covered hall usually arranged rows of prostration space toward Mecca. In the mosque plan, there were traces of most common basilica plans. Longitudinal aisles directed to the qibla, the transverse basilica with lateral exposure to the qibla wall and isotropic hypostyle hall. In Kufah, Iraq, latter type of first appeared mosque included a square hall with a forest of regularly, spaced columns spreading equidistant in both directions. Large opened court served that.

The architect, Abu al-Haiyaj affected the Greco-Roman precedents and learn the Byzantine towns that had been founded in the region. The city structure was based on the grid with two broad cross streets. At the principal intersection the governor’s palace and Friday mosque located back to back. Also open plazas that were covered orthogonally arranged streets, located too in each quadrants of Kufah. Even though, the cities of this region took on organic patterns, the initial Arab foundations proved almost as methodically geometric as those of the ancient Romans.

The Umayyad Period

In the after period of the Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr and Umar was other caliph in order. After the third elected caliph, Uthman was assassinated and Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law Ali took the power. He claimed his right through the bloodline. To avoid disputes, the political capital of Islam was transferred from Mecca to Kufah. Following assassination of Ali, Umayyad clan established their dynasty to new empire and they settled in the Greco-Roman city of Damascus, Syria.

The Arabs had not too much knowledge of masonry architecture. However Persian, Roman and Byzantine precedents was reference for them in terms of form and techniques. Hired byzantine architects and mosaic artists from Constantinople provides them these forms and techniques. The Dome of the Rock on elevated terrace toward the center of the Temple Mount had central plan structure imitated a Christian martyrium. Also, Its dome had traces from Anastasis built over the tomb of Christ. The arcade surrounding the rock had two other characteristics which became common in Islamic architecture such as pointed arches and ablaq. Octagonal shape of double ambulatories served pilgrim circulation around the sacred site. Double shell structure over cylindrical drum was used on the dome rose and the outer shell was covered with copper.

According to Christian churches, the Dome of the Rock had differences in terms of central plan. It used two concentric ambulatories which provide the pilgrims ritual of circling the rock under the dome. The major structural elements of the interior piers and arcades followed the intersection of two nine square grids.

After a year of completion of the Dome of the Rock, Mecca fell to the Umayyads. Abd al-Malik’s son, al-Walid built the Great Mosque of Damascus took from between (707 and 714). It nears to the Green Palace that was a dynastic residence begun by his grandfather and known for its green tiled dome. The Great Mosque of Domascus was against the southern wall of the ancient temenos. The area was lateral courtyard a little greater according to the prayer hall with arcades on two levels. The great sahn enclosed an ablution fountain and arcane octagonal pavilion known as treasury which was used for keeping wealth of the empire.

The Abbasid Succession

The Umayyad dynasty extended empire borders from The Indus Valley to east to Spain and Morocco in the west. Rebellions and other people who disaffected from Umayyad rules came to leadership of Abdu’l-Abbas. A descendent of the Prophet’s youngest uncle transferred the power in 750 to the Abbasid dynasty and the new dynasty murdered all of the members of the Umayyad clan.

The second Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur created a round city on the Tigris River which called like Madinah al-Salam or “city of peace” but the locals called Baghdad. Baghdad’s initial plan was sort of perfect circle 2.6 km diameter. The designers rotated the one of four symmetrically placed gates in cardinal point to Mecca. Each entry had a deep vault arch, known as an iwan and over it a hall with golden dome for diplomatic ceremonies. Early Baghdad had two major cross axial streets that covered by vaults in order to create cool climate for the shops. The forty secondary streets led radially from the centre.

The first of the grand residence, Jausaq al-Khaqani, known as the Caliph’s Palace was built-in 836. Broad stairs led to it from the river, rising to meet the gateway of the Bab al-Amma formed by three vaulted iwans. The palace gate remarked the point of contact between the people and their ruler. The grounds included a central esplanade, a circular amphitheatre, 170 acres of flower gardens and orchards. There was mosque and guarded enclosures for the troops that had deployed in the northern barracks and the treasury, the arsenals.

Rome after Constantine: The Last Classical Buildings

In the period after Constantine, the Church took over political authority from senatorial class so the Church survived as the only sovereign. Rome experienced a quick regeneration time under papal leadership. They provided some donation to a few new churches, including Santa Sabina, Santa Maria Maggiore and Santo Stefano Rotondo, using a particular Roman classical style.

Santa Sabina was sited the three aisle basilica in 430 on Aventine Hill. The Church territory got greatly damaged during the some invaders attacks and their sacks. The Church was coordinated as the great reception hall of empire. Also, use of arches over its recycled Corinthian column was showed us classical precedents.

Santa Maria Maggiore was built around 440 and used some columns to support well-proportioned flat entablatures. The architects minutely decided the proportions with the same height as the lower parts order, using with scaled Corinthian pilasters. Also, there were flat coffered ceilings which sort of rectangular ornaments included some animal or etc. figures in it, and some ornaments on the pavements.

Santo Stefano Rotondo was the most original and unfinished one that was built between 468 and 483.  In the church, there is a central domed space wrapped by an annular vault ambulatory. Four rectangular chapels were extended radially to cardinals’ directions in order to have access external ambulatory that encircled whole. On the other side, they never completed the central dome of Santo Stefano. The pitched roof over the cylindrical core was carried by incongruous arcaded plane that was sliced the central space in half.

The new power of the bishops spread the all Italian cities, even Milan. Milan was one of the most crossroad cities and it located in the middle of the north Italy. Also, most of fourth century, Milan was the capital of the western empire. St. Ambrose had arrived in Milan as the Roman governor of the province in 370 during the advanced mixture of secular and religious authority. Despite not been baptized, Four years later, the citizens chose him their Bishop. He supported early Christian churches such as Sant’Ambrogio and San Simpliciano.

Sant’Ambrogio stands as a three aisle basilica with a colonnaded atrium. Ambrose located on his own sarcophagus under the main altar of apse next to two martyrs. San Simpliciano had tall blind arches that were made by bricks. It was also resembled the Constantine Basilica in Tier. San Lorenzo was another early Christian church which was created by the imperial rivals of Ambrose in Milan. It has a luxurious double shell structure that supports a dome. The peculiar form of central plan caused an ideological struggle between the bishop and the rival emperor. Built in the 380 San Lorenzo octagonal dome was raised over four-two piers. The exterior site exposed four square stair lower that abutted the four exedra at their corners. The church opened to grand rectangular atrium fronted by a Corinthian colonnade built for an early structure.

Byzantium

Constantine transferred political capital east to Byzantium in order to be at the safe distance from the old centre of power. Byzantine was the first city that had an expressly Christian identity so the Roman city plan included Christian churches as primary urban components.

The Mese, a grand colonnaded central boulevard was the main structure of the urban system of Byzantium. In every half-kilometer, the boulevard was opened to public plaza. There were colossal column that carried some messages in the middle of the Mese’s final stretch. The urban sequence culminated at the Milion. Augusteon Forum was lined with colonnades on all sides. Senate House and the Chalke were located on the east side of the Augusteon Forum. The entrance was supplied a bronze arch and in the imperial side, there were formal dining halls, basilica meeting chambers and a series of domestic courtyards. Constantine palace ”Kathisma” were overlooked a stadium to watch races.

Apostoleion that the Christian emperor conflated the cult of the imperial ruler with that of Christ in was the Church. It had Greek-cross plan with arms of equal length in all directions. Its five domes formed a quincunx scheme. The Church was coalesced with imperial residence. That’s why, baths, guard houses, dining halls and fountain were in it. The sarcophagus of Constantine supported the main altar at the centre of the Church.

Constantine’s city was improving quickly in terms of population and infrastructures so it was became large city unexpectedly. Due to several occasions, most of the first time buildings were demolished or burned in time. That’s why; it slowly lost some Romans traces and gains some mixture of architectural features that come from different cultures. For instance, usage of Christian Halls was increased instead of colonnade spaces. So Constantine’s city was turned to cosmopolite city in terms of architecture.

Hagia Sophia

In Emperor Justinian period, Nika riot that took three days was occurred and during the riot, many buildings were got damage including Hagia Sophia. Approximately thirty thousand people were executed in Hippodrome. After all of these occasions, Justinian responded with influential works such as churches, reconstruction of Hagia Sophia, SS Serigus and Bacchus churches.

A powerful female patron, Anicia Juliana that was a daughter of an emperor of the previous imperial dynasty was built Holypolyeuktos that was large dome church, to promote her son’s claim to the throne. However, the building no longer exists. Justinian desired to build more larger church so Hagia Sophia was rised. Hagia Sophia had some similarities St. Peter and Lateran Churches. Its plan included some samples from these two churches. Both of them had large rectangular form and central dome. In additionally, Haiga Sophia and Holy Sepulchre were built in same period also same person so there were some tracers of it. Such as, matroneum that served for women.

Anthemis and Isidemis were the designer. The Central dome was built two times since in the first time it was demolished. They experienced the orange peel conditions so they predicted the some points which would crack possibly, designed those points as opening. The dome was carried by the concealed columns which connected from outside of spaces to dome instead the columns that were directly divided the spaces so in the spaces, the dome was perceived as it was hanged in air. A dome rose over the centre on pendentives, triangular concave spandrels and rested on a short drum with a ring of clerestories. Series of columns ran along the sides, emphasizing the long dimension of the church. There were another two semi domes which one of them was in north and other was in south side. Because of that the span was longer than pantheons’. However, columns are not in vertical direct vertical direction and the facade is like the form which is rising to sky. Hagia Sophia was rebuilt increasing the height after twenty years.

Ravenna was the capital in between Milan and Rome. It lay on west side of Byzantine. The city based on 400 meter grid structure. The surrounding marshes of the Po River delta provided excellent defence advantages from both land and sea attacks. The canals set the city boundaries north and east until influx of Imperial court from Milan. After the ınflux the boundaries were tripled in size to accommodate palaces, a circus and numerous churches.

A female patron Galla Placidia made first important interventions in Imperial Ravenna, daughter of an emperor, sister of another, wife of a third, and mother to yet another. In 424 Galla Placidia built the large three-aisle Basilica of St. John Evangelist in the new district of Ravenna. In the same year she also built the church of Santa Croce, in the new northern district. The church also was first building that was referred to Christians cross. Galla Placidia also sponsored Ravenna’s new cathedral and baptistery built in the first half of the fifth century. It called as Orthodox to separate them from the Arian version built at the end of the fifth century. The Baptistery had five aisles like Lateran and a baptistery to one side. Octagonal structure was preserved in the baptistery. Its brick shell concealed an interior space of superb decorative complexity. The mosaics, painted stucco, coloured marbles and inscriptions impose a sacred hierarchy over its frame.

 

 

Ancient Roman Architecture

 

Ancient Rome was one of empires that dominated world history at first century BCE. For imposition of political will, architecture and urbanism was the main tool of government. Many temples, colonnade streets, markets, theatres, aqueducts, public baths and triumphal arches were built in that term, for fundamentally deserving for that purposes and also necessities of mankind. Aegean, Egyptian and Southwest Asian cultures was the reference point for Romans. They barrowed some models from Hellenistic Cities, they designed colonnaded enclosure spaces and put it them their ideas and created new their architectural repertoire and also they used devised arches , vaults and their technology of concrete construction in order to overcome gravity problem. Due to Romans architectural innovations, they produced varied public spaces in formal envelope that supplied daily life necessities.

 

Romans architectural innovations were benefited from the colonies which lived dependently. So, Perugia and Volterra gateways and also Capitoline Hill were public spaces that they were designed and inspired from Etruscans architectural methods. Especially, they obsessed on Jupiter Optimus Maximus Temple which was imitating the Etruscan Temples. Lateral tripartite cella under a lower pitched porch, accessed by axial stairs, the column of the Tuscan order, the Etruscan version of Doric, stood undecorated, stout and wide apart features were referenced from Etruscans. Roman temple usually repeated Etruscan frontal orientation with a columnated porch.

Romans also designed some infrastructures, vaults, bridges and aqueduct on the landings which Romans were conquered in order to show their authority on that territory. While Romans were doing that, for the main landing which is in Mediterranean site, they preferred to add some minor changes. In that stage, human behaviour was also played a big role to have decisions for Romans too.

Pompeii was a small city that we are able to see plenty of various public spaces which were built by Romans. The terrain has formed by dark lava stone. The city pattern was based on Oscan, Etruscan Greek and Roman ideas. It was kind of rectangular grid structure but mostly interesting part was street ideas. Sidewalks were raised from the ground in order to guide wagons and carts, also it was available to sit for people. In that way, in the overflowing the ground can be used as aqueduct and it would be cleaned.  In cross parts of the street there some stone which have same riser level with sidewalks. Thanks to, these stone people were able to change their directions.

The Forum was the one of the most popular public spaces in that term. According to Greek, the forum has more different qualities and conditions. It was in between 7 hills and designed with stoa idea. North side of the forum was dedicated for gods of the Roman Capitolium. The temple’s depth equalled twice its width. It stood on podium and accessed by single stairs that enforced the axial orientation of the forum. In the porch, there were six across and four deep columns which stands the ceiling. In Eastern part wall-of market was concealed by flank colonnades and also we are able to see this organization in Hellenistic period. Two smaller buildings added as shrines to emperors and the offices in the rest of this eastern part.

Roman bath has a so innovative system in it in terms of that period. Under the floor and in the wall there were same gapes. Because of those gaps, the heated air was circulating in some specific spaces. The name of it is hypocaust system. There were plenty of rooms which people could sit and relax. Most of bath spaces have circler form and in the middle of the space there was the pool. The other public spaces were amphitheatre and Rome’s Circus Maximus, usually these construct for big events, races and gladiatorial contests. These building were greatest place of spectacle and in terms of mass the largest places of the empire. They were made form tons of travertine blocks fastened with iron clamps. In the basis of the building , there were arches structure. People were able to enter the construct one of eighty arches and thirty-two hoisted the theatrical equipment and the participations in spectacle combat space.

Domus was specific dwellers for Roman people. Houses organized on certain axis. The parts which were closer to main roads were shops and upper floors were dwelling for owner of those places. However, there was not any direct connection to main dwelling. Between the shops, there was just one passage to main house. In entrance there was the space which called “Atrium”. Atrium was the space which inhabitants lived and did some specific activities. And then, Some there was an office spaces which called Tablinum. This space have directly visual connection to peristyle which was sort of garden. The main significant thing about the dwelling was main axis because, atrium, tablinum and peristyle were locating linearly and it shows the Romans designers decisions about to how people live usually in that period.

 

 

Ancient Greek Architecture

Ancient Greek architecture is the base of classicism. It gained a universal role after being used for centuries. What made it different was the importance of democracy in society. Geographical conditions also helped democracy to flourish. As a result city states (polis) were born.

Athens is the main city that produced architectural works. The Agora was at the base of Acropolis. It was a space where all Athenian men were able to discuss. Agora had a more important role in city affairs than Acropolis. Reason of this situation is the imortance of democracy in Greece. Many roads also connected to Agora because of its other functions.

As Athenian government developed, they needed new building types. These types include Prytaneion (city hall), Skias (dining hall for the members of the senate), Strategion(chamber for military) and Bouleuterion (senate house).

Parts that surrounded the Agora were stoas. A stoa is a semi open building with columns. It was designed to be accessible by everyone. This quality of stoas show the importance of equal accessibility in Greece, which is related to the importance of democracy.

In the Greek colonies in Turkey, grids had an important role. Orthogonal planning was used a lot more effectively than other places. Aristotle states that Hippodamus was an expert on dividing cities. He imagined an ideal city with 10000 people. He divided them into three as farmers, soldiers and artisans. The grid he used allowed him to have the ideal area for a house with courtyard.

In Miletus city had three grids with different sizes. Landscape was the main reason of it. Area in between the grids had many buildings with varying proportions. In Priene city is formed by standard units. Landscape has a slope and it adds dynamism to city.

Houses in the colonies were also standardized. It helps us understand the importance of equality in their society. Best examples of this approach to city planning can be found in Olynthus. The houses were called oikos. Their rooms had no specific functions except for the andron. House itself is gathered around a veranda with columns. Court is connected to rooms with a stoa like structure.

Temples were the main attraction point of the cities. They are designed to have impressive facades that are formed by columns or have special relations to landscape. All of the temples have some repetitive elements and styles, like columns, pediments, friezes etc. Main variation between them was created through column types. Ancient Greeks used three column orders that differentiated temples in terms of proportions; Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.

Doric order was used in Greek mainland. Temples with Doric order had six modules of height and two modules of intercolumniation. Columns had stout forms. They ended in simple round capitals. Second Temple of Hera in Paestum can be given as an example of Doric order.

Ionic order was used in Greek colonies in Turkey. Artemis Temple in Ephesus is a great example of Ionic order. This order had the proportion of one module to nine. Main difference occurred at the capitals. Ionic capitals had curls that formed volutes.

Corinthian order is not specific to a region but this is not a negative property when we consider its qualities. These columns can stand by themselves as separate statues because of their acanthus leave ornaments.

Greek temples were originally painted like ziggurats, and their columns were waxed so the light would shine on its surface. This approach shows that the Greek temple was designed as an object to be viewed but not entered.

Greek obsession with proportions also support that idea. Temples were arced and Doric columns had slight bumps to have perfect view from a distance. There were many changes like these and they were called refinements by the architects.

History of Architecture in Jerusalem

Jerusalem is the oldest city which mankind have been living. Many historical facts about religions, society and traditions made that territory enormously special for mankind. The people who were from each religion wished to add that region to their territory yet the city is under the control of Jewish people. Everyone is expected that the city contains many of historical facts about the architecture. However, there are not too much ancient samples which are going to guide us about the ancient design. Basically, inhabitants were seminomadic so, usage of tent and tabernacles were common preferences. This means that there were not many constructs or temples. The habitants were gathered by common belief so; the city was just made from the common ideas.

Jewish political mechanism of alliances, intermarriages and cultural exchanges guaranteed wealth. Due to that wealthy condition, the significant temple for mankind and also history of architecture was wished to build in the period of David who was the king of city. However he could not because of the seminomadic life, there were some lack of architectural ideas and information. Also, in some sources people explained that David was overly authoritarian, barbarian. Because of that, God did not want to build the temple from David through his dreams. However, Solomon who was the son of David did his father wishes.

The temple was available to see anywhere from the city yet just elites were granted a permission to be in. The stairs made the spaces more special as Sumerian did. In the porch, there were two column which they called angels names so the temple was sort of “megaron” organization. For the rituals, temple created from narrow and high ceiling level. Also, according ritual organizations there was specific cubical space which they called rear sanctuary in the back stage. Generally, in the religious places, there were some sculptures or drawings in order to imitate conditions of god and mankind. However, in the temple there were not any of them.  We are able to observe that how much the religion affects the architectural decision in building.

History of Architecture in Mesopotamia

Before the period, we all know that mankind improved their skill about to creating a shelters and houses. We invoked vernacular architecture for the design of these shelters and houses that were created by unknown people. In that period some cities were made by single houses units. We are able to see some traces of these houses in Sumer and of course a few step forward about the design. When people started to live together, some needs and problems were came out such as, drainage, storages, worship places and political areas. Evolution of the design in the Mesopotamia period affected the cities of Mesopotamia.

The fabric streets, canals and dwelling were the product of the collective work of the people and according to Neolithic age the ideas were much more complex. The relations among the streets canals and dwelling were the concern of the people. In that period, %80 of the inhabitants of the region had been living in the cities. Actually, the rate is really high according to contemporary period. That’s why, conditions, activities, necessities etc. of people played in critical role on city idea. Temples, water managements and circulation of goods and people in street were the proof of their intention and also it was about the evolution of architecture.

The houses were based on introverted ideas and each of them involved courtyard in order to isolate spaces from the outside. And also when we compare with now, there were not too much visual relation with outside. The reason for that is drainage issue that was one of vital problems. The streets and canals were used in that purpose as a primitive infrastructure. Because of the collective work the products were stronger than the Neolithic age. Great number of people somehow specialized on art and craft. These primitive systems of these cities showed us that they were not just invented written knowledge. They also created system for collective work and planning cities.

In the Mesopotamia period, the buildings that were affected the distinct ideas were temples. The first staircases in architectural design were used in the urban temples. Temples were raised based on Axis Mundi and according to their idea, changing level is creating special spaces for religious ritual or sacrifices events.  In the cities, there were social stratification issue. It means social hierarchy on the basis of wealth status. Variable levels that were bigger or narrow were designed especially for them and usage type.

After the Sumer period, we are able to observe religious places and dynasties environments were assembled in some manner. In the basic ideas, religious places had plural spaces qualities because of the religious rituals and sacrifices. That’s why , the relation between singular spaces is critical issue. Singular spaces had less interaction with plurals in order to keep privacy of dynasty. It provided to have hierarchy among the spaces. For example,  Throne room were not directly connected to ritual spaces, there were singular spaces that provided to connection in Palace of Zimrilim.

 

Prehistorical Architecture

Shelter is one of essential necessities of mankind. Thinking on that problem brings to existence vernacular architecture. At the beginning, the shelters which were made by other species were inspiration source for humanity and the idea of “shelter” has been evolving since. However, vernacular architecture is mostly about the ancient period of this process. That’s why, the designers are unknown and the only thing that we can do is interpretations and observes their way of solve problems. Vernacular architecture was mostly based on adaptation of the geographic circumstances, climate conditions. Also it was in period of temporary shelter to permanent structure. That’s why, tents, mud, wood and stones are the possible concept in vernacular architecture.

At the beginning, the first samples were about the tents where most hunter-gatherer nomads lived in. Because of the nomadic life style, mobility of the shelters was fundamental feature. In general, occupants were hunter so having not too much interaction with nature can be another answer why they prefer to use tents. Bawarsa , people of Botswana and the Baka Pygmies’s tents that had similar qualities despite being different geographic locations are a proof of it. Of course, according to duration of stay the tents were changed. It gained different possibilities such as much more branches, wood or leave etc. Yurts and wigwams that served in a longer period for Asian and American nomads is one of the examples.

Mud was one of the most popular materials for construction in especially temporary shelter to permanent structure. According to that period, it was so potential for creating more defined and also larger spaces. It was flexible, easy to stiffen and work with. But it has major problem about the vulnerability to seismic tremors and moisture. Preserving the structure was highly significant. The fortress in ancient city of Bam was defenceless against the tremor in 2003 and it got damaged. That’s why, supporting with wooden frames was critical. Creating a dug out cities with using mud was another solution against the main necessity. Village of Banpo in China was first one of the first examples of that idea. Rooms are carved with vaults and they support the whole building. However, digging out was not efficient to design and in general, it depends on the type of soil or rock. That’s why, cob technique was improved. Using small units and assembling them was the main idea. After that, using the same idea but just add the wooden mold operation provides Adobe technique. In that way, most of the thing took over by designers.

Other than being used for molds, wood as a material had many other uses since ancient times. Longhouses were one  of the popular wooden structures. Wooden was the material which people can find so easily in nature and previous stage of column and beam idea was made from wooden skeleton. It created some potential to fit for some purpose of usage. In that period, apparently there was transition from curvilinear form to rectilinear form. In that way, large spaces where 200 people can fit in were designed. Longhouses was sample that idea.

In the ancient time period,  mankind tends to live permanently in specific territories. Stone is most durable material that people are able to use .Also, it provided to get more solid way  of spanning interior spaces. However, it takes plenty of time especially during the shaping. The sample can be in Çatalhöyük about the spanning interior spaces in circular shape.

Overall, Shelter is fundamental problem of mankind in all the time. People have been trying to discover different type of materials and methods in order to solve the problem. These ideas and works which belong to unknown people created vernacular architecture etc. As mankind did this before, there will be different types of approaches for the problem and it is going to create new ways to architecture.